Emergency Operations Essay Example for Free

Emergency Operations Essay Washington is situated in the Pacific Coast, Northeast of the United States. It lies in a geographical region endowed with rain forests though some parts are dominated by a semi desert. The Washington state has varied climatic conditions with the oceanic climate dominating the west and drier conditions in the east. The annual temperature range on average stands between 39-52? F. The Washington community is a big community accommodating residents from all walks of life engaged in various tools of trade. The community has been victim to various catastrophic disasters that have called for emergency responses in the past. Its high vulnerability nature to disasters therefore makes it the ideal case to illustrate an Emergency response plan (ERP) model. The disasters range from volcanoes, fires, tornadoes, floods, earthquakes, winter storms, nuclear explosions, acts of terrorism, collapse of buildings among others. This ERP intends to particularly address the entire range of natural, hybrid and man made disasters . The plan is geared towards eventually offering solutions for the hazards that might culminate to such any of the above mentioned types of disasters, and also highlight the components of an effective ERP that would be able to act to minimize the effects disasters where they can not be controlled A disaster can be briefly defined as a sudden calamitous event that occurs and leads to loss of lives, damage to property ,causes unexpected hardships and cannot be effectively contained by use of ordinary procedures and resources(Schneid Collins, 2000). Natural disasters are those that occur majorly because of acts of nature, they occur slowly and insidiously before they severely manifest outwardly. They might be predictable because some areas are prone to some particular disasters but little can be done to control their occurrence. Examples of such disasters in the Washington Community include tornadoes, wind storms, ice storms among others. Man made disasters are those whose occurrence has entirely been induced by man in his daily activities. Hybrid disasters on the other hand are triggered by a combination or rather both natural and human actions such as deforestation that are current resulting to the current situation of global warming and subsequently affecting sea levels of cities on the coastal lines leading to floods. The effects of the disasters are severe broad and of a great magnitude ranging from losses of billions of dollars to damage that can not be quantified such as human life and also creating scenarios that need evacuations, widespread searches, casualties and rescue operations. Thus the solution lies in putting in place early warning and preparedness mechanisms in form of an Emergency response plan that will ensure that the community is adequately prepared to response in the occurrence of the disaster notwithstanding its type. Emergency Response Plan framework: Washington state community The very fist step in disaster preparedness and therefore formulation of an ERP is to identify the potential risks, evaluating the probability of those risks actually occurring and then assessing the probable damage and gauging the community’s vulnerability to the disaster (Lindell et al, 2001). The ERP needs to be a document compiled in agreement by all the stakeholders that are critical in the community’s disaster preparedness programmes. The plan needs to entail comprehensive risk analysis and valid risk predictions based on research and also include well thought early warning and disaster monitoring systems. The mandates and responsibilities of each stakeholder in the emergency response structure also need to be clearly indicated. The framework will need to entail models and plans for training disaster responders and rescue teams, together with all the personnel that come in handy at the onset of disasters from the various service providers in the community. Methodologies of risk communication, information dissemination and community awareness creation will also be encompassed. The intention is to help the ordinary community member personalize the risk and equip him with the right attitude, knowledge, and skills for self protection at the onset of a disaster. This should be done periodically to ensure the community accepts, retains and processes the information therefore becoming capable of acting in time of emergency. The community including the responders can carrying out mock drills and exercises to help them understand better the emergency scenarios and the whole concepts of emergency response. Additionally the community can be equipped with basic resources that will come in handy in the onset of the disasters. Indications of stock piling in the document are also critical to ensure that the necessary material resources and equipment will be available. Advance agreements therefore need to be made with the appropriate response suppliers in this regard (Eshghi Larson, 2008). In addition preparations for activating emergency reception programmes need to be put in place. The framework needs to as well include mechanisms geared towards tackling both the natural, manmade and hybrid disasters root causes. In conclusion early warning, response facilities and communication systems are invaluable assets all of which must be addressed in any ERP framework. Reference List Department of Homeland Security. (2004). National Response Plan (NRP) Course Summary (ISO 800). Retrieved on July 15, 2009, http://www. wnysmart. org/references/NRP summary. pdf Eshghi K, Larson, R. (2008). Journal of Disaster Prevention and Management, 17(1), 62. Retrieved from Proquest on July 15, 2009. Lindell K. (2001). Facing the unexpected:disaster preparedness and response in the United States. Washington,DC: Joseph Henry Press, p121-124 Schneid, T. Collins L. (2000). Disaster management and preparedness. U. S: CRC Press, p 2-3

The Impact Of Competition Policy Business Essay

The Impact Of Competition Policy Business Essay These days, different businesses are involved in different kind of activities, so different kinds of people are involved in starting those businesses initially. Mainly, there are three types of organizations that need to be considered here. These are Public Sector Organization Private Sector Organizations Voluntary Sector Organizations The main purpose of public sector organizations is to provide all the essential public services and to use the resources of a country for the best benefit of its community. Private sector organizations are owned and run by private individuals who may take the form of sole traders, partnerships, companies and franchises. Main objective or purpose of private sector business organizations is to make profit, increase their market share, and maximize the sales and to trigger continuous growth. On the other hand, voluntary groups are not owned or governed by individual people however some individuals will take the responsibility for ensuring that organization is on track of its purpose and is doing what it is set up to do. Main purpose of these types of organizations is to try to help particular type of people and such type of organizations must achieve a breakeven for survival. As far as my case study is concerned, Anglo American has an economic purpose of making profits, social purpose to provide returns to the society and environmental purpose to minimize the bad effects on the environment. Different Stake holders As we talking about the stakeholders of Anglo Americans, first comes employees. Employees of Anglo Americans enjoys respect and employee empowerment from company they are trained in way to perform their duties positively in the best interest of the company. Company with different kind of incentives and benefits motivate employees for better performance as a research and development company of medicine. As far as communities are concerned Anglo American makes a valuable contribution to the society and community. Such as compliance with the law and regulatory framework plus compliance with the ethical standards and fulfilling the human rights by providing jobs to the economy. Suppliers are one of the most important stakeholders of every business organizations as the bargaining power of suppliers can create problems for business. So for the smooth working of every company strong and long lasting relationship between suppliers and business organizations plays a Vitol role. Anglo American s has a diverse supply chain management which fulfils the health and safety and quality standards of the organization. Responsibilities and strategies Anglo Americans identifies its stakeholders and contact with all stakeholders who have a legitimate interest in the projects. Talking about communities as a stake holder of the organisation, the strategy of Anglo American is talking to the local communities in aligning their aspiration needs. Anglo American aims that where they operate proper benefits should be taken from their presences. It benefits to the communities as stakeholder of the organization results in socio economic development, as it provides employment opportunities to the local community which helps in the development and progress of peoples life style. It works in Sustainable environment concern about the health and environmental issues which cause problem to the community as well as environment. Anglo American believes on safe working process which ensures sustainability. Talking about shareholders, Anglo American fulfils the responsibilities of shareholders through well defined channels. For example by securing the ir interest and investments by showing them the progress and development of company through regular dialogs and fulfils the statutory requirements. This progress is communicated to the shareholders and investors through a range of reporting documents such as annual reports and accounts and report on sustainability. Talking about government as a stakeholder, it interacts with government in a legal and regulatory framework of country. The organization fulfils its responsibility by paying tax to the government and by giving the entrepreneur opportunities and helping the government in achieving revenue transparency. Task 3: The impact of competition policy and other regulatory mechanisms on the activities of Anglo American The competition policy in the UK economy is currently based on the Competition Act 1998, Enterprise Bill 2002, Office of Fair Trading (OFT) and the Competition Commission (CC) as well as other regulatory mechanisms including the Companies Act 2006, the regional policy, industrial policy, enterprise strategy, training and skills policy and so on (Sloman and Stucliffe, 2003). The impact of UKs competition policy on Anglo American, for example, would be: To restrict it from monopoly formation; American wont be able to set up its own prices and have to go with the market price of the products. Make managers more efficient and effective Since competition will be high, managers will have to come up with more innovative solutions to achieve an edge; give improved quality at low costs; Since, Anglo American is involved in mining work used by different economies; it has to keep costs low while maintaining quality. increase consumer choice, in short, augment the consumer and shareholders interests (Fernando, 2011) Different Market Structures and determination of Pricing and Output Market Structures with Pricing and Output determinants How market structures determine the pricing and output decisions of businesses The market structures and the pricing and output decisions are illustrated in the diagram below (Sloman and Stucliffe 2003): Demand Supply Curve http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Supply-and-demand.svg/240px-Supply-and-demand.svg.png Market prices are determined according to the shift in demand or supply. If the demand shifts to the right, a higher price and higher quantity is set, this is the new market equilibrium price. Moreover, pricing decision also depends on market structure. For instance, firms undergoing perfect competition have to set the market determined prices and are known as price takers. While firms operating in monopolist environment have this differentiation advantage and it makes them capable of setting their own prices. Such firms usually target the niche market. The way in which market forces shape organizational responses Majority of the decision making of organizations depends on the market forces including: Demand and Supply of the product: The key point that answers the questions of what, how and for whom to produce depends on the demand and supply in the market; leads to allocation of scare resources in a profitable manner (Lowson, 2002). For example, if Cadbury has to decide which type of chocolate to produce, it will look for the product where demand is high and divert majority resources in producing that particular chocolate. Elasticity of demand and supply: Pricing and output decisions are also affected by the responsiveness of the quantity of demand of the product to changes in price, known as the elasticity of demand and the responsiveness of the supply as well (Lowson, 2002). For example, an organisation providing bus travel services might tend to charge higher prices at the peak time of the demand for buses, as people will consume the service to get to their destinations, no matter what the price is. In case of supply, if the cost of oil increases which causes their total cost of one unit to rise, they may reduce their production. Economies of scale: A phenomenon where increase in output lowers costs therefore, giving firms the incentive to produce more as it would consequently lead to higher profits (Sloman and Stucliffe, 2003). Consumer expectations and actions: Promptness in foreseeing and reacting to consumer demands will always be a significant element of competitive advantage for firms and cannot be ignored when making major decisions (Chang, 2005). For example, the Apple Company might determine the expectations of its consumers and innovate a product accordingly. The short run and long run phenomenon: The short run period is where at least one factor of production is fixed; whereas in the long run all can vary, thus affects the decision making or response of firms, for example what machinery to use. (Sloman and Stucliffe, 2003). Employee skills/technology/processes: As globalization has taken, it is imperative that every firm takes advantage of it to achieve competitive advantage in the market and attain its strategic goals. For example, businesses can do this by providing employees with the latest skills and knowledge that would allow them to perform their job effectively and efficiently as well as streamline all the processes/activities of the organisation by using improved technology and methods (Dessler, 2007). How the business and cultural environments shape the behaviour of an organization A business operates within an environment where both are inter-reliant and constantly interact with one another. The factors determining the business environment are shown below (Fernando, 2011): Factors forming the business environment Economic: For example, if a new economic policy is set, the firm must adjust the functioning of their organization accordingly; Technological: if new technology replaces the existing one, the firm must consider streamlining their processes in order to benefit the organization; Legal: if a legal policy comes into existence, the firm must analyze how to comply with the new policy; or using processes, activities or technology. Environmental: Trend has been set towards having business operations that are environmentally friendly as required by the government, in order to assist in the controlling of global warming and being socially responsible. Therefore, it is believed to be the duty of businesses to amend its behavior in line with the environment in order to run successfully (Fernando, 2011). Social/Cultural: The cultural environment on the other hand refers to the influence on the behavior of the organization by the cultural factors of the environment it operates in, which are beyond the control of the organization. The way culture may impact a business is asserted below (Trehan and Trehan, 2010): What type of product to produce, its price, packaging, promotion and place Consumers preferences, beliefs, attitudes, values would affect the product development for example, McDonalds does not serve beef in India. The attitude towards work or the internal culture of the organisation for example, the attitude of employees towards a diverse organisational environment. The labour workforce division at the organisation, for example whether both men and women should be employed or should majority of men be working and other decisions related to recruitment. The ethical guidelines to follow in every process of the business. The element of communication and dialect so there is effective communication of the organisation within, as well as outside the organisation with customers, suppliers and so on. Task 4: 4.1 The significance of international trade to UK business organizations The UK is positioned as the fourth most open economy in the world. The importance of international trade to businesses operating in UK including the mining Industry (Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills, 2011): Technological improvements lowering communication and transportation costs; innovation of business products and services. Helps these businesses to build larger networks in terms of customers, suppliers, shareholders, employees and other stakeholders. Transfer of capital at low costs therefore consequently leading to growth opportunities, better and streamlined processes and activities Transfer of intellectual assets; ideas; skills; tacit knowledge Employment creation; improved training processes; better and improved skills, knowledge and behaviour of employees Increase in investment enticement; growth of investment; greater shareholders Increases competition, making it products better and more consistent with the competition; offer better value and choice of products International trade gives an opportunity for the organizations to expand and outsource their businesses, reaching a wider market as well as lowering costs. Moreover, UK products/services are now exported to many other countries increasing their overall revenue. 4.2 The impact of global factors on UK business organizations The global factors impacting UK businesses and the way they will impact them is explained below (Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills, 2011): The economies of Brazil, Russia, India and China (BRIC) are being seen to grow rapidly. This could be seen as a threat to the businesses operating in UK as competition for them would get tough or it could be seen in positive light as being viewed by the UK government currently, where it intends on building strong ties with these countries. Globalization and global growth will provide these businesses with better market opportunities to develop and expand and building on export markets as well. US regulatory environment and litigation risks however, may cause businesses to be affected negatively. Potential synergies may develop between UK businesses and businesses of other countries. Mergers and acquisitions may take place giving organizations an opportunity to have sustainable business growth and target a wider market. Can take advantage of the opportunities provided by the World trade Organisation (WTO). The UK government is also functioning to persuade the EU to implement a more tactical, organized and continuous move towards lobbying on market entrance and business issues, particularly through the High Level Economic and Trade Dialogue established in 2008. Much scope to develop by exporting to Commonwealth countries. Capitalize on opportunities present in developing economies by outsourcing businesses and hiring labour. The impact of policies of the European Union on UK business organizations The various policies undertaken by the European Union (EU) and their impact on UK businesses are as follows (Sloman and Stucliffe, 2003): The Climate Change Act which has set target for the UK of reducing carbon emissions. To help meet this target, the EU introduced various policies. This would impact the business organisations in terms of their productivity or in terms of the kind of machines they use. Moreover, non compliance with these policies may also impact the businesses in a negative way such as building on an unfavourable image of the business. Regional Policy of the EU which endows with grants to firms in destitute regions thus, helping such businesses to improve in terms of sales, profits, activities and so on. Monopoly and restrictive practice policy putting restrictions on those businesses that are operating in more than one state for example Tesco. Adjustment of tax rates causing considerable differences in VAT taxes among member states. Thus, for example, Sainsburys will have to charge different VAT rates in different states. Social Policy requiring businesses to implement specific health and safety, employment, equal opportunity policies in their organisations and non compliance may cause the business to suffer. Other policies may include exchange rate policies; policies to comply with the legal framework of UK businesses and policies of meeting certain standards for long-term operations.

Louis XIV: The Greatest Leader of France :: Biography Biographies Essays

Louis XIV: The Greatest Leader of France The Days of Elegance The term "splendid" is one that most English speaking people are familiar with. To most of those people it has a meaning related to the overall appearance or feeling of what ever is being described. Webster's dictionary defines the term as: 1. magnificent and sumptuous. 2. distinguished or glorious. Splendor is more that that. It is an adjective that could be used to describe something so great and breath taking that one is left awed. The word splendid is often associated with the palace of Versailles, which was built Louis XIV. In the production of this grand structure there was no cost spared. It became a symbol of France, and a model by which all other palaces would be judged. Louis XIV received a great deal of criticism from onlookers as he used the French equivalent to millions of dollars to built this outstanding structure. There is still some speculation as to whether or not this was a good investment. It has been argued that the money could have gone to the poor or needy. The palace of Versailles was controversial, but in high insight, it is clear that Louis XIV made a sound decision in its erection. As Louis XIV took the throne, he was faced with several problems. He knew that he did not want to reside and rule in Paris, so against the will of his advisors he chose a hunting chateau as the site of his new palace. He also knew from history that the nobles of his domain had in the past and would continue to cause trouble in the form of uprisings and other conflicts. Louis XIV sought absolute power, and he knew that he would not be able to obtain this if preoccupied by civil conflicts. His solution to this problem was building Versailles and inviting all of the nobles to reside there. This was a brilliant scheme to keep the nobles out of the politics of the country. He preoccupied them with tasked normally associated with chamber maids, thus allowing him to rule as an absolute monarch. The splendor of the palace was a key factor in this plan because with out it, the nobles would not have a willing to leave their homes and move to Versailles. The historical account, The Splendid Century , written by W.H. Lewis is a very useful tool in understanding the life of Louis XIV. It tells of his life, his goals, his motives, and the means by which he achieved those

Eulogy for Grandfather :: Eulogies Eulogy

Eulogy for Grandfather To my family, relatives and friends who knew Joseph, may the grace and peace of Almighty God the Father, His Son Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit be with you all. Although I can not be here today physically, I am here with you in spirit. I would like to share a few words about my grandfather, whom I loved very dearly. He was a man who loved his family very much and made the best of what he had to provide for them. During my lifetime, I observed how diligently my grandfather worked in the barbershop, in the garden and around the house. He would also go out to cut hair for those who were in the hospital, house bound and in the nursing home. I also observed his generosity when he would give friends and relatives food from his garden. He always had a kind word and gentle smile towards those whom he encountered. His charity, I am convinced, is an effect of his strong Catholic faith in our Lord Jesus Christ. Charity towards others is the greatest sign of God's presence in our lives. His charity overflowed into his family. He truly loved his wife, his children and grandchildren. Even when there would be disagreements in the family, he would be the fi rst one to put end to them. He always made it a point that peace should remain in the family no matter what would happen. These words of wisdom were made manifest by the 65 years of marriage he enjoyed. From the time I was born until the day I left for Rome last August, my grandfather had always cut my hair. As he cut my hair, he would tell me stories about Westerly, family matters, tending the garden and, of course, his birthplace Acri, which is situated in the center of Calabria, Italy. He would tell the same stories over and over to me, my father, my aunt and uncle and my cousins. He never tired of telling these stories and they always seem to bring a smile to his face. Now when I look back, these are the memories I have of him, of who he was, of what he did, and how he lived. In April of this year, I had the unique opportunity of traveling to Acri on a day trip. When I arrived in this small town situated in the mountains of Calabria, I began to see all the places my grandfather told me about when he used to cut my hair. Eulogy for Grandfather :: Eulogies Eulogy Eulogy for Grandfather To my family, relatives and friends who knew Joseph, may the grace and peace of Almighty God the Father, His Son Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit be with you all. Although I can not be here today physically, I am here with you in spirit. I would like to share a few words about my grandfather, whom I loved very dearly. He was a man who loved his family very much and made the best of what he had to provide for them. During my lifetime, I observed how diligently my grandfather worked in the barbershop, in the garden and around the house. He would also go out to cut hair for those who were in the hospital, house bound and in the nursing home. I also observed his generosity when he would give friends and relatives food from his garden. He always had a kind word and gentle smile towards those whom he encountered. His charity, I am convinced, is an effect of his strong Catholic faith in our Lord Jesus Christ. Charity towards others is the greatest sign of God's presence in our lives. His charity overflowed into his family. He truly loved his wife, his children and grandchildren. Even when there would be disagreements in the family, he would be the fi rst one to put end to them. He always made it a point that peace should remain in the family no matter what would happen. These words of wisdom were made manifest by the 65 years of marriage he enjoyed. From the time I was born until the day I left for Rome last August, my grandfather had always cut my hair. As he cut my hair, he would tell me stories about Westerly, family matters, tending the garden and, of course, his birthplace Acri, which is situated in the center of Calabria, Italy. He would tell the same stories over and over to me, my father, my aunt and uncle and my cousins. He never tired of telling these stories and they always seem to bring a smile to his face. Now when I look back, these are the memories I have of him, of who he was, of what he did, and how he lived. In April of this year, I had the unique opportunity of traveling to Acri on a day trip. When I arrived in this small town situated in the mountains of Calabria, I began to see all the places my grandfather told me about when he used to cut my hair.

Ambiguity in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay example -- Young Go

Ambiguity in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚         There is no end to the ambiguity in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†; this essay hopes to explore this problem.    Peter Conn in â€Å"Finding a Voice in an New Nation† makes a statement regarding Hawthorne’s ambiguity:      Almost all of Hawthorne’s finest stories are remote in time or place. The glare of contemporary reality immobillized his imagination. He required shadows and half-light, and he sought a nervous equilibrium in ambiguity. . . . Where traditional allegory was secured in certitude, however, Hawthorne’s allegorical proceedings yield only restlessness and doubt. The stable system of correspondences that tied allegory’s images and ideas together was lodged squarely upon the religious orthodoxy that Hawthorne rejected. In his belated version of the sacramental world, the links binding visible to spirit have become vexed and problematic. . . . The flickering, uncertain revelations offered by the physical world in Hawthorne’s fiction allow simultaneously for confession and concealment, for discovery and disguise. This doubleness generates tensions that can be felt throughout Hawthorne’s work. . . .   (82-84).    R. W. B. Lewis in â€Å"The Return into Rime: Hawthorne† mentions the ambiguity associated with the key imagery in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†:   â€Å"For Hawthorne, the forest was neither the proper home of the admirable Adam, as with Cooper; nor was it the hideout of the malevolent adversary. . . . It was the ambiguous setting of moral choice. . . .† (74-75). Henry James in Hawthorne, when discussing â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† mentions how allegorical Hawthorne is, and how it is not clearly expressed with this author:    The only cases in which ... ... Lang, H.J.. â€Å"How Ambiguous Is Hawthorne.† In Hawthorne – A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by A.N. Kaul. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.    Lewis, R. W. B. â€Å"The Return into Time: Hawthorne.† In Hawthorne – A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by A.N. Kaul. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.    Martin, Terence. Nathaniel Hawthorne. New York: Twayne Publishers Inc., 1965.    Melville, Hermann. â€Å"Hawthorne and His Mosses.† In The Norton Anthology: American Literature, edited by Baym et al.   New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1995.      Ã¢â‚¬Å"Nathaniel Hawthorne.† The Norton Anthology: American Literature, edited by Baym et al.   New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1995.    Wagenknecht, Edward. Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Man, His Tales and Romances. New York: Continuum Publishing Co., 1989.            

Barrier is something Essay

Unit 18 What is barrier? A barrier is something that gets into the way or stops another thing from happening. As we all know, communication is an extreme complex progress. And if one person finds it hard to understand subject or to write or even speak effectively about it, that person cannot be sure that his/her meaning has been received exactly. This loss of meaning which may block communication is often called Barrier. There are 3 main ways in which communication can be blocked: 1. If a person cannot see, hear, or receive the message 2. If a person cannot make sense of the message 3. If a person misunderstands the messages 1. Person cannot see, hear, or receive the message. Visual disability Hearing disability Environmental problems –(noise) Speaking from too far 2. Person cannot make sense of the message. Different language are being used, including sign language People using different terms, such as slang internet or text jargon One of the speakers has physical or intellect disability, such as memory loss or learning Dysfunction. 3. Person misunderstands the message. Cultural difference: different cultures interpret non-verbal and verbal and humour, in different ways Assumptions about people: assumptions about race, gender, disabilities etc. can lead to stereotyping and misunderstanding Emotional Difference, very angry or very happy people may misinterpret what is said think about sarcasm Social contest: conversation and non-verbal messages understood by close friend may not be understand by strangers. Physical barriers A physical barrier to communication Is something in the surrounding that stops the person from communicating with other. For example if the place where the conversation is held may be noisy. Impairmentsvc Some people will haveimpairments that can stop them from communication for example if they are unable to see,hear,or talk. Emotional factors Emotional factor can affect the way we communicate with others for example, lack of support /lack of trust, afraid,feeling happy,feeling sad,low self-estee/ or over/under confident. Different language Some people may not speak the same language as you and therefore you may have difficulty understanding each other Jargon Jargon is when people use technical words. The use of jargon can be confusing for other to understand.

Does Culture Determine Your Theory of Mind Essay

What has distinguished Homo sapiens from non-human organisms is their ability to develop a theory of mind (Scholl & Leslie, 2001). Premack & Woodruff (1978) originally defined theory of mind as being the tendency to make attributions about behaviour based on acquired knowledge of mental states, such as belief, desire and intention. An equally important aspect of theory of mind concerned the individual’s ability to understand the subjectivity of mental states, comprehending that other individuals have desires and beliefs that differ significantly from one’s own, an understanding that is highly important to human functioning (Baren-Cohen, 1995). This essay questions the influence that culture has on the development of a theory of mind. What was of primary interest in this essay was to investigate the extent to which theory of mind was characterized by universal processes of development and whether underlying cultural factors were responsible for the timing and development of theory of mind. Certain marked cultural differences were suggested as influential variables which could determine the development of a theory of mind, these being parenting styles, number of siblings and executive function which were thought to play a pivotal role in the development of a cultural identity (Lillard, 1998). In the context of cross-cultural comparison, a critical assessment of the false-belief task was conducted. The validity and reliability of the false-belief task was analyzed in relation to the development of theory of mind, and alternative explanations and measurement tools were provided which would allow for a more sensitive and reliable cross-cultural comparison to be made. Described as onto-genetically universal, theory of mind is a construct of human psychology and biology that is universally applicable to every culture (Liu, Wellman, Tardif & Sabbagh, 2008) . A unanimous result from twenty five years of research has reported that a theory of mind is developed in early childhood and exhibited from the age of five or six years old as result of progressive stages of development (Lillard, 1998). Many researchers (e. g Liu et al. , 2008; Wellman, Cross & Watson, 2001) have observed parallel developmental trajectories between western and non-western cultures in relation to the age at which a child acquires a theory of mind. Callghan, Rochat, Lillard, Claux, Odden & Itakura (2005) observed the cross-cultural development of theory of mind in samples of 12-31 children and declared there to be a ‘critical period’ of development between the ages of three and five years old when children begun to conceptualize and understand the difference between belief and reality. From a remote bush community in western Africa, to a mountain village in Peru, researchers (e. g. Avis & Harris, 1991) have observed the universal development of a theory of mind. The communicative purposes of theory of mind are invaluable to the survival and higher functioning of human kind. Cross-culturally, theory of mind is relevant in order to teach, deceive, inform and share planned actions (Baren-Cohen,1999). However, although this cognitive development is fundamental and pivotal to human functioning, research in this field of investigation has challenged the universality and applicability of theory of mind postulating that cross-cultural variations were responsible for determining and influencing the timing and stages at which theory of mind developed. Many prominent research studies have been published in the literature, arguing for the influence of culture on the development of a theory of mind (Wellman et al. , 2001). Astington (2001) has argued that although cross-cultural variation does not reflect a child’s ability to acquire a theory of mind, there may perhaps be sociocultural variances in early childhood experience that could potentially influence how and when a child achieves theory of mind. Similarly, studies have observed a discrepancy in the timing of development across certain industrialized cultures, an example being Canada and the United Kingdom (Wellman et al. 2001), and Japan and North Korea (Oh & Lewis, 2008). A meta-analysis of cross-cultural performance on false-belief tasks was conducted by Liu et al. , (2008) which investigated whether culture contributed to the development of theory of mind. A meta-analysis was conducted on 200 conditions (16-24 children per condition) of children from mainland china and Hong-Kong in order to assess whether the difference in cultural beliefs and values between these two culturally diverse samples had a significant impact on the timing of development. Increasingly more westernized and individualistic, Hong-Kong was predicted to mirror the North American trajectory of development in that children would be more likely to perform above chance on the false-belief task. Liu et al. , (2008) observed that Chinese children were more likely to under-perform on false-belief tasks in relation to their Japanese counterparts and that this resulted in a difference of up to 2 years in timing of false-belief acquisition. However, like many comparison studies, the results of this study were potentially confounded due to relatively small sample size. A condition of 16-24 participants did not allow for methodological error or research bias. Contradictory evidence and potential methodological errors in relation to cross-cultural comparisons has resulted in a thorough examination of the measurement tools used to study theory of mind. A seemingly reliable and valid measurement tool, the false-belief task has to some extent dominated the theory of mind model over the course of twenty five years (Dennet, 1978 as cited by Wellman et al. 2001). Astington (2001) reported that there exists â€Å"a danger in letting a single task become a marker for complex development†, as reliance on a single measurement construct can record potentially confounding results, leading to improbable and invalid conclusions. The ‘chocolate and cupboard’ false-belief task was developed by Wimmer & Perner, (1983) in order to assess whether a child had the ability to understand that their mental representations of the world differed from reali ty. Many researchers have found methodological flaws in the false-belief task claiming that it is unnecessarily difficult (Sullivan & Winner, 1993). A cross-cultural study conducted by Wellman et al. , (2001) confirmed that many children failed the false-belief task due to confusion and lack of understanding. A secondary criticism of the false-belief task has been made in relation to the limitations it places on performance in that it does not take into account fundamental components of theory of mind (De Rosnay, Pons, Harris & Morrell, 2004). Therefore, in order for a valid cross-cultural comparison to be made it was necessary to examine other important mental states such as emotion, desire and intention (De Rosnay et al. , 2004). A five step Theory of Mind scale was developed by Wellman & Liu (2004) in order to conduct a cross-cultural comparison of theory of mind. Preschoolers in North America (Wellman & Liu, 2004) , Australia (Peterson & Wellman, 2009) and Germany (Kristen, Thoermar et al. 2006) were found to follow the same ordered sequencing of conceptual developments, these being diverse desires, diverse beliefs, knowledge access, false beliefs, hidden emotions (Shahaeian, Peterson, Slaughter & Wellman, 2011). Although an identical trajectory of development was reported in many western cultures, a study conducted by Wellman et al. , (2004) discovered an interesting cross-cultural difference in relation to Chinese preschoolers who, although following the same steps of development, completed them in a different order with knowledge access being learned before diverse beliefs. Although there does not appear to be a cross-cultural difference in the mastery of theory of mind, the emphasis placed on knowledge access in Chinese preschoolers over diverse beliefs in western preschoolers is consistent with the importance that collectivist societies associate with social harmony over self-expression and individual beliefs. Reliance on one particular measurement tool has resulted in many extravagant and inconclusive claims being made, one such example being that researchers have associated a below chance performance on a false-belief task with an underdeveloped theory of mind (Astington, 2001). However, many researchers have argued that a three year old’s failure on the false-belief task could be indicative of linguistic underdevelopment or confusion rather than an absence of theory of mind. Leslie (2000) conducted qualitative reviews of cross-cultural performance on false-belief tasks in order to assess whether certain aspects of the methodology were inconsistent across cross-cultural testing. Methodology was found to differ in relation to the type of question asked, nature of the protagonist and type of task. Similarly, there was an inconsistency in the phrasing of the questions across many of the studies, with certain children being asked a question in terms of belief (Where does John think his chocolate is? ) or in terms of speech (where does John say his chocolate is? ). Efforts to reduce methodological error and improve performance have been made by many researchers (e. g. Chandler, Fritz & Hala (1989) in order to demonstrate the plasticity and flexibility of theory of mind. Chandler et al. (1989) found that if the experimental design of the false-belief task was manipulated by implying deception and trickery, performance was more likely to increase. A cross cultural comparison reported similar results when young children actively participated in deception. However, although these results may have provisionally provided an explanation for improved performance, it must be noted that above chance performance on this task did not confirm a child’s ability to conceptualize but mere ly emphasized their ability to ‘play along’ . Due to flaws in methodology and reliance on the false-belief task, researchers have failed to provide consistent and valid results in relation to a cross-cultural comparison of theory of mind. In light of these contradictory results and inconclusive explanations, alternative variables have been analyzed in order to expand on the literature pertaining to cross-cultural differences in theory of mind. Vinden (2001) was of the opinion that the development of a theory of mind aptly reflected parental influence in relation to cultural and moral expectations. Children emulated and modified their behaviour according to their parents’ example, therefore for a child to be capable of predicting and understanding another individuals’ mental state positively reflected parent-child intervention in the early years of their childhood. A cross-cultural comparison of theory of mind assessed whether parental attitudes of Korean-American and Anglo-American mothers influenced how their children developed mental states such as desires, beliefs and intentions (Vinden, 2001). Two previous studies conducted by Kim, Kim & Rue (1997) and Farver, Kim & Lee (1995) reported certain cultural differences between Korean-American and Anglo-American individuals. Korean-Americans were reported as valuing interdependency, social harmony and self-control in favour of individual orientation, symbolic play and independence, traits which were synonymous with the individualistic Anglo-american society. Importantly Korean-American parents were seen as obeying an authoritarian structure of parenting in contrast with Anglo-American parents who favoured an authoritative model . In light of the results obtained by the Kim et al. , (1997) study, it was hypothesized by Vinden (2001) that children of authoritative mothers would be more likely to outperform children of authoritarian mothers on the theory of mind tasks. The results reported were surprising, in that five year old children of authoritarian Korean-American mothers outperformed their Anglo-American age mates on theory of mind tasks, however children of authoritarian Anglo-American mothers were found to under-perform on theory of mind tasks. What could be concluded from this study was that performance on theory of mind tasks could in fact be influenced by parenting styles, but what constituted acceptable parenting was subjective to cultural introspection. In other words, a similar endpoint of development was reached across cultures, due to parenting styles that obeyed a cultural value system (Vinden, 2001). Similarly, a cross-cultural comparison of theory of mind has been made in relation to the number of siblings a child may have. A study conducted by Ruffman, Perner, Naito, Parkin & Clements, (1998) reported a remarkable finding that suggested how a child’s theory of mind could be predicted based on the number of older siblings they possessed. According to Brown, Donelan-McCall & Dunn (1996), children with older siblings developed mental representations about the world around them through symbolic play. Many researchers have argued for the importance of symbolic play in establishing a theory of mind (Leslie, 1987) due to the fact that through discussion and pretend play younger children were exposed to false-belief situations enabling them to emulate the behaviour exhibited by older siblings. However, it is important to remain critical when discussing the importance of symbolic play due to the fact that although above-chance performance on theory of mind tasks may be recorded, the extent to which conceptualization and false-belief is properly understood demands further explanation. Reiterating what has been previously stated by Vinden (2001), it was important to acknowledge that, although the same end point of development was reached across cultures, the stages of development differed based on cultural intervention. In recent years, the skills associated with executive function have been proposed to contribute to the development of theory of mind (Moses, 2001). Many researchers interested in cross-cultural comparison have conducted studies in order to ascertain whether the development of executive skills is directly influenced by cultural beliefs and values. Interest in this area of research has come about due to the importance of understanding theory of mind in conjunction with the development of cognitive processes (Moses, 2001). Executive function is an umbrella term used to describe a plethora of cognitive processes such as inhibition, verbal reasoning, problem solving and working memory which contribute to the development of theory of mind. Executive function has been assessed across a diverse range of cultures in order to determine whether development of executive function skills differ across cultures, and whether this difference in development affects the acquisition of a theory of mind.